Category: SBS Content

The Assyrian Empire

Unknown author
Israel’s Enemies and the Great Empires

During the monarchy, Israel’s enemies were mainly those in surrounding nations. The enemies within the promised land are not mentioned much after King David. It is recorded that Solomon put the people who remained in the land to forced labour (1 Kings 9:20-22).

The Assyrians and Babylonians

Assyria and Babylonia were both ancient but distinct kingdoms located in the fertile crescent, in the cradle of civilisation. Babylonia occupied the plain between modern Baghdad and the Persian Gulf. Assyria was generally bordered on the west by the Syrian desert, on the south by Babylonia, and on the north and east by the Armenian and Persian hills.

The rivers Tigris and Euphrates were vital to both civilisations. The high and dry plateaus were unfavourable to agriculture, so an irrigation system was constructed using canals.

Assyria and Babylonia share a common Semitic language, Akkadian, and have much in common. Power oscillated back and forth between the two, with Assyria generally being the leading political and military power, especially during 900-612 BC, when Assyrian power reached its zenith, under Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal. However, Babylon had the stronger cultural and religious influence.

Assyrian Religion

The Assyrian religion was mostly derived from Babylonia. The Assyrian national god was Ashur, the ancestor of the Assyrians, the second son of Shem (Gen 10:22). His name was given to the capital city, Ashur, where the main temple to Ashur was situated. The Babylonian national god was Marduk.

Absolute authority was ascribed to the national god. The people were required to give complete subservience, self-abasement and humble submission to his will. Ashur came into prominence in the 2nd millennium BC. He had no truly distinctive character of his own, but merely personified the interest of Assyria as a nation. The worship system had similarities to Israel. A high priest with many priests directed daily rituals of sacrifices, hymns, prayers and laments, anointing, exorcisms, interpretation of dreams and fertility ceremonies. Animals, fruits and vegetables were offered as sacrifices.

The current Assyrian king was seen to act as a regent for Ashur and the military campaigns were seen as holy wars against those who would not worship Ashur. The other Assyrian cities were believed to be guarded by different deities, although each city had many temples to various gods. Ishtar, the goddess of war and love was worshipped at Nineveh.

Assyrian Warriors

The Assyrians had a passion for war. Their nobility belonged to the military caste. Palace walls were covered with bas-reliefs depicting scenes of war. The bearded soldiers were highly disciplined and were well equipped with battering rams and throwers for siege warfare. In their conquest, a strategy of terror was adopted: unless the besieged city surrendered, paying a heavy tribute, all inhabitants were mercilessly massacred. They deported all surviving captives to a foreign land and replaced them with Assyrians or other conquered peoples, thus avoiding risk of rebellion. They were committed to writing war exploits in annals of conquests, each king boasting of his gruesomeness. Ashurbanipal wrote about a captive king, “I took him alive in the midst of the battle. In Nineveh, my capital, I slowly tore off his skin.”

Assyrian Culture

Assyrians were devoted hunters when they were not at war. There was abundant wild-life in the area and Assyrian bas-reliefs frequently show hunting scenes, especially hunting lions. In the British Museum is a series of very detailed wall-carvings showing Sennacherib’s hunting scenes.

Assyrians were also devoted to art and literature. Excavations have revealed thousands of tablets of cuneiform writings as well as the refined architecture of the kings’ palaces and temples.

History of Assyria
Origin of Assyrian Empire

Nimrod, the mighty hunter, built many cities, including Nineveh and Calah, forty kilometres south of Nineveh on the River Tigris (Gen 10:6-12). Assyria is referred to as the “Land of Nimrod” (Micah 5:6). The land of Assyria is likened to the promised land when it is described as a land of grain and wine, of bread and vineyards, olive trees and honey (2 Kg 18:32). It was situated in the fertile crescent and consisted of strips of alluvial soil on each side of the River Tigris. The area was originally settled about 3500 BC.

Around 2500 BC the Sumerian civilisation came to an end. Assyria became subject to Akkad, then Gutium of Babylonia. It was later occupied by Babylonians, who brought their religion, laws, script and language. For part of the time before 1400 BC, Assyria was also subject to Egypt.

Early period

At this time, groups of high priests of Ashur called the Mitanni, ruled the area. These were Semitic rulers, subject to king Hammurabi of Babylon (1790-1750 BC).

1365-1330 Assuruballid I

He became king of Assyria and married his daughter to the Babylonian king. The Babylonian king was murdered and Assuruballid’s grandson was made king of Babylon. Assyria began to return to its former greatness.

1274-1245 Shalmaneser I

He fought tribes in the eastern and northern hills, and against the Hittites who were supporting Babylon, and cut off communication between the two nations. He rebuilt Calah as his new capital.

1244-1208 Tukulti-Ninurta I.

The Hittites had been crushed by people from the north, so Assyria concentrated on Babylon and conquered it. Tukulti-Ninurta reigned over all Mesopotamia for seven years and took the image of Merodach from Babylon to Assur. Babylon revolted and again became independent, Assyria retreated and Tukulti-Ninurta was murdered by his son.

Old empire (1100-1000’s).
The Assyrian Empire began to rise again after a period of a decline in power, when the Arameans were able to put pressure on their western border, and move into northern and southern Syria

1115-1077 Tiglath-Pileser I

extended the Assyrian empire to the north and to Cappadocia. He reached the Mediterranean coast and received tribute from Egypt. He planted gardens at Assur with trees from the conquered countries. After his death, Assyria declined, Arameans took Pethor, so access was lost to the Mediterranean.

1010-970 Assur-rabi II

Assyria at its weakest under under threat from Aramean desert tribes. This was the period when David’s kingdom reached its greatest, reaching through Syria to the River Euphrates.

933-910 Ashur-dan II

Start of the revival of Assyria, during the time of the division of the kingdom with Jeroboam in the north (Israel) and Rehoboam in the south (Judah).

Neo-Assyrian period

883-859 Ashurnasirpal II

This was a time of rising power. The Assyrian Empire began to expand west to conquer the Aramean tribes around the Euphrates and reached the Mediterranean. They took tribute from the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon and received homage from Hittite king at Carchemish. They expanded northward, subduing Armenia and Commagene, and to the Zagros mountains in the east. The continual pushing west eventually brought her into conflict with Israel, during the time of King Omri. Ashurnasirpal rebuilt the ruins of Calah (also known as Nimrud), using 50,000 prisoners, as his administrative capital.

859-823 Shalmaneser III

He organized the administration in the lands his father, Ashurnasirpal, had conquered. He also extended the borders of the empire to rule from Urartu in the north, to the Persian Gulf, and from Media, to the Syrian coast and Cicilia (Tarsus). He conquered Carchemish in 857 BC.

In 853 BC he fought against an alliance of ten kings at Qarqar. This alliance included Benhadad of Syria, with 1200 chariots, 1200 calvary, 20,000 infantry; and Ahab of Israel, with 2000 chariots, 10,000 infantry. Assyria boasted of a great victory, but in reality it was more of a draw as their expansion was halted for five years. The battle is recorded on the Shalmaneser III Stela in the British Museum.

By 842 BC, the anti-Assyrian coalition had broken up, so Shalmaneser besieged Damascus, but failed to conquer it, Hazael was king of Syria at this time. He took tribute from Tyre and Sidon, as well as from Jehu of Israel (2 Kg 10:32), which is recorded on the Black Obelisk in British Museum. Jehu had purged the house of Ahab, leaving Israel weak. Shalmaneser also overran Armenia and Tarsus, conquering mines in the Taurus Mts. The king of Babylon became subject to him.

823-811 Sammshi-Adad V

He campaigned against Media and Babylonia. Internal problems and raids from the north weakened Assyria. Sammshi-Adad died young leaving his widow to act as regent until his son Adad-Nirari was old enough to become king.

811-783 Adad-Nirari III

He was the grandson of Shalmaneser III, and claimed to have subdued all Syria, Phoenicia, Edom & Philistia, relieving Israel from the attacks from Syria. He is possibly the saviour referred to in 2 Kg 13:4, during the reign of Jehoahaz. He built a new palace outside the walls of Calah.

783-746 Assyria weak, with 3 weak kings.

During this period there was internal strife. Jeroboam II of Israel took advantage of Assyria’s weakness and invaded Syria, as prophesied by Jonah (2 Kg 14:25), bringing a peaceful and prosperous time for Israel, with the borders restored to the extent of Solomon’s kingdom. However, Hosea and Amos show the bad spiritual situation at this time. Jonah preached in Nineveh during this time. After the death of Jeroboam II, the northern kingdom became very unstable, with five kings in twelve years.

Second Empire

745-727 Pul (Pulu)

Pul usurped the Assyrian throne, taking the name Tiglath-pileser III and reigned for eighteen years. He reorganized the army, his aim was to make western Asia one empire to secure trade for merchants of Nineveh, especially from Egypt. He established a vast empire and deported conquered peoples and thereby established strong central administration.

Syro-Ephraimite War

Rezin (the last king of Syria before it was incorporated into the Assyrian empire) and Pekah, king of Israel wanted Jotham of Judah to join a coalition against Assyria (2 Kg 15:37). Both Jotham and his son Ahaz of Judah refused, so Rezin and Pekah came against Judah (2 Kg 16:5-9), Edom also rebelled. Ahaz’s response was to submit to Tiglath-pileser (1 Chr 5:26), and ask for help. Isaiah exhorted Ahaz not to bow to Assyria, but Ahaz did not take any notice (Is 7). Ahaz took the treasures of the temple and king’s house and gave them to the king of Assyria. Ahaz became a vassal of Assyria and had to adopt Assyria’s gods (2 Kg 16:10-16).

In 743 BC, in response to Ahaz’s request, Tiglath-pileser marched into Northern Syria, conquering Hamath and extracting tribute from a number of major cities, including Damascus (2 Kg 15:29).

In 738 BC, Pul took 1000 talents of silver as tribute from King Menahem of Israel, becoming the first Assyrian king to be mentioned in Scripture (2 Kg 15:19).

In 732 BC, he conquered and destroyed Damascus, taking the people captive (2 Kg 16:7-9). He also invaded northern Israel taking people from Galilee and Naphtali captive to Assyria (2 Kg 15:29-31), leaving only the land around Ephraim. This was the first deportation from the northern kingdom. Pekah was assassinated, and Tiglath-Pileser placed Hoshea on the throne of Samaria as a puppet-king.

In 728 BC, Tiglath-Pileser marched into Babylon and was made king of Babylon.

727-722 Shalmaneser V

Shalmaneser was the son of Tiglath-pileser and continued fighting in the west and made Hoshea of Israel one of his vassals (2 Kg 17:3). Hoshea rebelled by refusing to pay tribute, expecting help from Egypt (2 Kg 17:4), so Shalmaneser invaded Israel, and besieged Samaria (2 Kg 17:5-6) and died during the siege in 722.

722-705 Sargon II

Sargon usurped the Assyrian throne and finished the job of capturing Samaria, claiming credit for the victory. He took 27,290 people from Israel into captivity. They were carried away to the upper Euphrates and Media, losing their cultural and religious identity. He built himself a palace in Khorsabad, tem miles north east of Nineveh, while Calah remained the military centre.

At this time Hezekiah of Judah rebelled against Assyria (2 Kg 18:7). His reforms, by clearing out the idols and return to worship of Yahweh would be seen by Assyria as rebellion.

In 717 BC, Carchemish, the Hittite capital was captured. Also a revolt in southern Palestine was suppressed and Merodach-Baladan of Babylon was driven back to the Persian Gulf.

In 705 BC, Sargon was murdered and succeeded by his son Sennacherib.

705-681 Sennacherib

Sennacherib was an able soldier who restored the capital to Nineveh. In his first years, he had to suppress revolts which broke out at the time of his father’s death as well as a revolt by Merodach-Baladan in Babylon, who asked Hezekiah of Judah for help (2 Kg 20:12-19).

In 701 BC, Sennacherib invaded Philistia and Judah to bring his rebellious vassal Hezekiah back under Assyrian control. He took forty-six walled cities of Judah and 200,000 people captive (2 Kg 18:13). During the siege of Lachish (2 Kg 18:14-16), Sennacherib sent messages to Hezekiah, who paid tribute, 300 talents of silver and 30 talents of gold, even stripping the gold from the door of the temple, but this was not enough. Jerusalem was besieged by Sennacherib’s Tartan (the second in command of the army), who mocked the God of Hezekiah (2 Kg 18:35, 19:10). Sennacherib said that “He had shut up Hezekiah in Jerusalem as a bird in a cage”,and demanded his surrender. Sennacherib himself did not come against Jerusalem, he was busy fighting other battles.

Through Isaiah, God promised deliverance. Hezekiah sought God and God delivered Judah from the hand of Assyria (2 Kg 18:17 – 19:36, Is 36-39). When there was a rumour that Tirhakah of Ethiopia was coming against Assyria (2 Kg 19:9), they withdrew from Jerusalem. When they returned, God’s angel killed 185,000 of their troops (2 Kg 19:35). Herodotus wrote that the Assyrian army was killed by a plague of mice (possibly bubonic plague carried by rats).

In 697 BC, Sennacherib suppressed a revolt in Cilicia, fighting against the Greeks, and conquered Tarsus. In 689 BC, he levelled and burnt down Babylon because of the rebellion by Merodach-Baladan, who was driven out.

Finally, in 681 BC, Sennacherib was assassinated by his sons in the temple of Nisroch in Nineveh (2 Kg 19:37).

681-669 Esar-Haddon

He was the younger son of Sennacherib, brought Assyria to the height of its power and built a new palace at Calah. Babylon was rebuilt and made the second capital of the empire. King Manasseh of Judah paid him tribute, being required to provide building material. Under Manasseh, Judah returned to idolatry and being under the yoke of Assyria. For a short time, Manasseh was taken to Assyria (2 Chr 33:11). Under the terms of the tribute, Judah must submit to Ashur, the national god of Assyria, and the children must be taught this.

In 674 and 671 BC Egypt was conquered by Esar-haddon, Manasseh assisted in this campaign. Campaigns into Media & Arabia. Esar-Haddon described himself as “king of the world”. In 669 BC, he died on the way to Egypt to repress a revolt by the native chiefs of lower Egypt.

669-626 Ashurbanipal

He was the last of the strong Assyrian kings. King Manasseh of Judah was present at his inauguration. He was a scholar who collected a huge library of over 100,000 tablets in Nineveh, having his scribes copy the libraries of ancient Babylon. These were discovered in the ninteenth century. He was a keen big game hunter. Ezra 4:10 mentions “the great and noble Osnappur“, probably referring to Ashurbanipal. His had a cruel war policy and repopulated Samaria with Babylonians. The prophet Nahum probably prophesied against Nineveh during his reign.

During the 640’s, he subdued rebellions in Babylon. Then in 663 BC, he continued the suppression of the revolt in Egypt and conquered No-amman (Thebes) (Nahum 3:8). Assyria now came to its greatest territorial extent, ruling most of the fertile crescent, from southern Egypt, north to the mountains of Armenia, and east to the Persian Gulf.

During his reign, Assyria began to be weakened by internal strife, and Nabopolassar of Babylon as well as others began to rebel. After 626 BC, the death of Ashurbanipal, Assyria rapidly declined.

 

Fall of Assyria

 

The rapid decline of Assyria was caused by the excessive luxury of the court and the many wars, against Egypt, Tyre, Babylon and east to Susa. Ashurbanipal’s brother had stirred up a revolt through much of empire. Babylon was besieged for a long time and eventually submitted because of starvation. In Northern Arabia rebels were forced to submit, and Egypt gained independence under Psammetichus. Both these exhausted financial resources and fighting men for the army.

In the north-east Medes became powerful. In the south-east other Semitic tribes pushed inland like the Chaldeans, under Merodach-Baladan (2 Kg 20:12-13).

629 BC Assuretililani, son of Ashurbanipal.

626 – 606 BC Sirisharishkin

After a civil war, he became the last king of Assyria. Scythians from Caucasus Mts. inundated the Assyrian Empire, looting and burning as far as Egypt (Zeph 2:4,7). Nabopolassar, the founder of the Neo-Babylonian empire, and then his son Nebuchadnezzar began to have more and more power, driving Assyria out of Babylon for the last time.

Josiah’s reforms continued throughout Israel in the 620’s BC, cleaning out all the idolatrous practices of foreign religions, showed that Assyria no longer had control over her provinces.

In 614 BC, the Medes, under Cyanxares (625-585) and the Babylonians, under Nabopolassar (626-605) invaded Assyria, sacking Ashur, the ancient Assyrian capital and Calah.

Finally in 612 BC, the combined force of Babylon, Media, and the Scythians besieged and sacked Nineveh (Zeph 2:13), fulfilling the prophecies of Nahum and other prophets.

In 609 BC, Pharaoh Necho came out of Egypt to help Assyria. He took Jehoahaz to Egypt and put Eliakim / Jehoiakim on the throne of Judah (2 Kg 23:29,31-34). Assyria could do nothing, the tyrant of the fertile crescent was dead.

In 606 BC, Sirisharishkin was killed fighting the Scythians. Soon after they disappeared, Nabopolassar took control of northern Babylon. By Cyrus’ time, Assur, the old capital was a small town, the great cities of Nineveh and Calah no longer existed. The Assyrian empire was so totally destroyed that it was widely believed until the archaeological sites were discovered last century that the Assyrian empire was a myth only described in the Bible.

The city of Nineveh

Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian empire, was originally founded by Nimrod (Gen 10:11-12), shortly after the flood. Nineveh and Babylon were two rival cities about 300 miles apart, both in the Euphrates valley.

Nineveh rose to world power around 900 BC. It included a complex of associated villages served by a great irrigation system and protected by a network of fortifications based on the river defences. The city was thirty miles long and ten miles wide, protected by five walls and three moats. It’s population reached around one million. It was built by forced labour from foreign captives.

The inner city was three miles by 1½ miles, situated at the junction of Tigris and Khoser rivers, protected by walls one hundred feet high, eight miles long and broad enough at the top to hold four chariots driven abreast.

Fall of Nineveh

Within twenty years of Nahum’s prediction, an army of Babylonians and Medes sieged Nineveh for two years. After two years, a sudden river flood washed away part of the walls, fulfilling the prediction made by Nahum, “The river gates will be opened” (Nah 2:6). The attacking armies swept through the breach to destroy the city.

The destruction was so complete that even its site was forgotten. Many Biblical scholars thought that references to a city of Nineveh were mythical, the city never having existed. The ruins were not found until 1820 near the city of Mosul and not identified definitely until 1845 by Layard. The mound covers one hundred acres, being an average of ninty feet high. The palaces of the Assyrian kings (Ashurbanipal, Sennacherib, Sargon) have now been uncovered and many inscriptions found which fit with the Biblical account. The library of Ashurbanipal was uncovered in 1852, in the palace of Sennacherib. It originally contained 100,000 volumes. A third of it was uncovered and is now in the British Museum along with wall panels from the palaces.

Dates of the reigns of Assyrian kings

King	Date	Comment
Ashur-Dan II	933 – 910
Shalmaneser III	860 – 825	Began to “cut off ” Israel
Adad-Nirari III	808 – 783	Took tribute from Israel, Jonah’s visit?
3 weak kings	783 – 747
Tiglath-pileser III	747 – 727	Deported most of Israel
Shalmeneser IV	727 – 722	Besieged Samaria
Sargon II	722 – 705	Took Israel Captive. Ministry of Isaiah
Sennacherib	705 – 681	Invaded Judah and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem
Esarhaddon	681 – 668	Very powerful
Ashurbanipal	668 – 626	Powerful and brutal. Time of Nahum?
2 weak kings	626 – 607	Empire fell to Babylon

Key Dates:
Fall of Ashur            614
Fall of Nineveh        612
Fall of Haran           610
Fall of Carchemish   605

Dates of Kings of Judah / Israel and nations

Julian Spriggs, M.A.

This is a helpful reference giving suggested dates for the reigns of the kings of the nations from the reign of Saul, through the time of the divided monarchy in Israel and Judah, and into the inter-testamental period.
Setting dates for the kings of the divided kingdom is very difficult, so dates will vary in different reference books. An initial reading of the Books of I and II Kings would give the impression that it should be easy to construct a time-line of the period of the divided kingdom, as each king is introduced in relation to the king reigning in the other kingdom. However, on further study, setting a chronology of the kings is found to be difficult. There are three main reasons for this:

1. The accession year

The question is whether the first year of the reign of the king is counted, as Hebrews often counted time inclusively. In modern terms, if a king ruled from December 2004 to January 2006, we would say he ruled for one year and two months. However if the accession year is counted, he ruled for three years. This would mean that the year with a change in king can easily be counted twice, if not three times. During the early years of the divided monarchy, Israel counted the accession year, but Judah did not.

2. The time of New Year

During this period, Judah started their New Year in the month of Tishri (September or October), but Israel’s New Year was in Nisan (March or April). Because the reigns of kings are normally dated by the king in the other kingdom, confusion of years would be easy.

3. Regencies

Regencies occurred particularly in Judah, but not in Israel. This is when the son of the current king began his reign when his father reached old age and was not capable of ruling the kingdom effectively. This system brought stability to the monarchy at a time of potential weakness. When David reached old age, Solomon was anointed king before David had died (1 Kg 1). Jotham acted as regent when his father Uzziah was struck down with leprosy (2 Chr 26:21). There may have been regencies between several other kings, including Asa and Jehoshaphat, Ahaz and Hezekiah, and Hezkiah and Manasseh. The Book of Kings does not always indicate whether the period of regency has been counted in the length of a king’s reign. So when constructing the chronology, it would be easy to count the period of regency twice, thus making the chronology inaccurate.

4. Competing kings

The history of the northern kingdom of Israel was often turbulent, with frequent changes in king and dynasty involving violence. Often there were two rival claimants to the throne, normally ruling from different centres, bringing civil war to the nation. Before Omri became sole king, the nation was divided between him and another claimant to the throne called Tibni (1 Kg 16:21-22). This situation can also bring confusion to the dates.

The dates suggested below are not perfect, but those which are normally accepted in Biblical studies:

United Kingdom:

1. Saul           1050/45? – 1011/10
2. David        1011/10 – 971/70
3. Solomon    971/70 – 931/30

Kings of Judah:

1.    Rehoboam     931/30 – 913
2.    Abijam          913 – 911/10
3.    Asa               911/10 – 870-69
4.    Jehoshaphat   870/69 – 848       (Regent 873/2)
5.    Jehoram        848 – 841
6.    Ahaziah         841
7.    Athaliah         841 – 835
8.    Joash             835 – 796
9.    Amaziah        796 – 767
10.  Uzziah           767 – 740/39       (Regent 791/90)
11.  Jotham          740/39 – 732/31  (Regent 750)
12.  Ahaz             732/31 – 716/15  (Regent 744/43)
13.  Hezekiah       716/15 – 687/86  (Regent 729)
14.  Manasseh      687/86 – 642/41  (Regent 696/95)
15.  Amon            642/41 – 640/39
16.  Josiah            640/39 – 609
17.  Jehoahaz       609
18.  Jehoiakim      609 – 598
19.  Jehoiachin     597
20.  Zedekiah       597 – 587

Deportations from Judah

1. Nobility, including Daniel       605
2. Jehoiachin & Ezekiel             598
3. Fall of Jerusalem, Zedekiah   586

 

Kings of Israel:

The horizontal lines show a change of dynasty:

1. Jeroboam I        931/30 – 910/09      House of Jeroboam
2. Nadab               910/09 – 909/08
—————————
3. Baasha              909/08 – 886/85      House of Baasha
4. Elah                  886/85 – 885/84
—————————
5. Zimri                 885/84
—————————
6. Omri                 885/84 – 874/73      House of Omri
(Tibni 885/84)
7. Ahab                 874/73 – 853
8. Ahaziah             853 – 852
9. Jehoram            852 – 841
—————————
10. Jehu                841 – 814/13           House of Jehu
11. Jehoahaz         814/13 – 798
12. Jehoash           798 – 782/81
13. Jeroboam II    782/81 – 753, Regent 793/92
14. Zechariah        753 – 752
—————————
15. Shallum           752
—————————
16. Menahem        752 – 742/41
17. Pekahiah         742/41 – 740/39
—————————
18. Pekah             740/39 – 732/31
—————————
19. Hoshea           732/31 – 723/22

Returns from exile:

1. Zerubbabel    536
2. Ezra              458
3. Nehemiah      445

Significant dates:

Division of the kingdom      931
Battle of Qarqar                853
Fall of Damascus (Syria)    732
Fall of Samaria (Israel)       722
Fall of Nineveh (Assyria)    612
Battle of Carchemish          605
Fall of Jerusalem (Judah)    587 / 586
Fall of Babylon                   539

Syrian Kings

Ben-hadad         900 – 860, 860 – 843
Hazael               843 – 796
Ben-hadad        796 – 770
Rezin                 750 – 732

Assyrian Kings

Tiglath – pileser III     747 – 727
Shalmaneser IV         727 – 722
Sargon II                   722 – 705
Sennacherib               705 – 681
Esarhaddon                681 – 668
Ashurbanipal              668 – 626

Babylonian Kings

Nebuchadnezzar      605 – 562
Nabonidus               556 – 534
Belshazzar                553 – 539 (regent)

Median Kings

Cyaxares     625 – 585
Astyages     585 – 550

Persian Kings

Cyrus II            550 – 530
Cambyses         530 – 521
Smerdis             521
Darius I             521 – 486
Xerxes              486 – 464
Artaxerxes I      464 – 423
Darius II            423 – 404
Artaxerxes II     404 –

Greek Kings

Philip II of Macedonia      ? – 336
Alexander the Great         333 – 323

Fourfold division of Alexander’s empire

1. Greece (Macedonia) Cassander
2. Asia Minor Lysimachus
3. Syria & East Seleucus     “The king of the north”
4. Egypt Ptolemy                “The king of the south”

Ptolemies of Egypt

Ptolemy I    – Soter I           323-282 BC (Dan 11:5)
Ptolemy II   – Philadelphus   284-246 BC (Dan 11:6)
Ptolemy III  – Euergetes I    246-222 BC (Dan 11:7)
Ptolemy IV  – Philopator      222-205 BC (Dan 11:11-12)
Ptolemy V   – Epiphanes      204-180 BC (Dan 11:17)
Ptolemy VI  – Philometer     180-145 BC

Seleucid Kings of Syria

Seleucus I        – Nicator       312-281 BC (Dan 11:5)
Antiochus I      – Soter          293/2-261 BC
Antiochus II     – Theos         261-246 BC (Dan 11:6)
Seleucus II       – Callinius      246-226 BC (Dan 11:9)
Seleucus III      – Soter          226-223 BC (Dan 11:10-19)
Antiochus III    – the Great    222-187 BC (Dan 11:10-19)
Seleucus IV     – Philopator   187-175 BC
Antiochus IV   – Epiphanes    175-163 BC (Dan 11:21-35)

Israel’s Enemies at the Time of the Conquest of the Promised Land

Julian Spriggs, M.A.

God promised Abraham that he would be given the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaim, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and the Jebusites (Gen 15:17-21). There are several lists of the peoples Israel will drive out of the land. There is a core of six peoples: Hittites, Perizzites, Ammonites, Hivites, Canaanites, and Jebusites. These six are listed in: Ex 3:8 & 17, 13:5 (omits Perizzites), 23:23, 33:2, 34:11, Deut 20:17, Josh 9:1, 12:8, and Judges 3:5. There is one shorter list of Hittites, Canaanites & Hivites only (Ex 23:28). Some lists add the Girgashites to the normal six: Deut 7:1, Josh 3:10, 24:11, Neh 9:8(omits Hivites)
Geography

When the twelve spies returned to Moses at Kadesh Barnea, their report was that the Amalekites dwell in the land of the Negeb, the Hittites, Jebusites and Amorites dwell in the hill country and the Canaanites dwell by the sea and along the Jordan (Num 13:29).

During the conquest of the north, Jabin of Hazor called the following to fight Israel: the Canaanites in the east and the west, the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites and Jebusites in the hill country, and the Hivites under Mt. Hermon in land of Mizpah (Josh 11:3)

The Kenites

The Kenites are also known as Midianites (Num 10:29-30). Their name means “Smith”. The
Midianites were descendants of Midan, the son of Abraham through Keturah (Gen 25:2). They came from the area south-east of the Gulf of Aqabah, where there were copper mines. Moses became the son-in-law of Reuel (Ex 2:18), also known as Jethro (Ex 3:1), the Midianite. Moses invited Hobab, the son of Reuel, to join the Israelites and teach them how to live in the wilderness (Num 10:29). His descendants are mentioned in Judges 1:16.

Sisera was murdered by Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite, who drove a tent peg into his head (Judges 4:11, 5:24). Heber had separated himself from the Kenites and had linked with the Canaanite king Jabin, who oppressed the Israelites while Deborah was judge. Balaam mentions the Kenites (Num 24:21-22), predicting that Asshur will take them captive. Asshur could mean the Assyrians or the Amorites.

Saul spared the Kenites during his campaign against the Amalekites, warning them to depart (1 Sam 15:6). David made Achish of the Philistines think he had raided them (1 Sam 27:10) and later sent them spoil from the Amalekites (1 Sam 30:29). The Rechabites who were commended by Jeremiah (Jer 35) and helped Nehemiah rebuild the walls (Neh 3:14) were descendants of the Kenites (1 Chr 2:55).

The Kenizzites and the Kadmonites

They are not mentioned after Gen 15. By the time of Moses, the Kenites, Kenizzites and Kadmonites are not mentioned on the list of nations in the land. Caleb was the son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite (Num 32:12).

Family tree

From the table of the nations (Gen 10:15) and 1 Chr 1:11, the ancestry of the enemies are given:

The sons of Ham           – Cush, Egypt and Canaan,

the sons of Egypt           – Casluhim & Philistines,

and the sons of Canaan  – Jebusites, Amorites, Girgashites, and Hivites.

One of the sons of Esau, called Eliphaz, had a concubine Timna who bore Amalek, and ancestor of the Amalekites (Gen 36:12).

The other peoples are mentioned as Joshua was about to enter the land. They can be divided into four groups: Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaim, Canaanites.

The Hittites

The Hittites came from a powerful people that lived in the region of modern day Turkey, having entered Asia Minor around 2000 BC, then spreading out and dominating northern Syria. Egypt was their main rival, who dominated southern Syria. Their way of controlling northern Syria was by controlling the small but important city-states with a combination of military force and good diplomacy. They created a vast network of vassal states bound by the Hittite suzerain treaties, a kind of benevolent feudalism. Each vassal king was given a free hand in matters of internal rule and the guaranteed protection of his dynasty against usurpers. He in turn gave up the right to have an independent foreign policy and pledged an annual amount of tribute to the Hittite capital.

The stipulations section of the treaty included:
a) No foreign alliances outside of Hittite orbit
b) No hostility against another vassal of the Hittites
c) Obligation to answer any call to arms issued by the Hittite Suzerain
d) Obligation to suppress any vicious rumours about the Hittite crown or secret plots to rebel
e) Prohibition against granting asylum to refugees from Hittite lands
f) Obligation to extradite all fugitives to the Hittites,
g) Obligation to appear personally at least once a year at Hittite court with tribute.

Groups of Hittites lived in the hill country of the promised land (Num 13:29). They worshipped up to a thousand different gods. The Hittites were with Israel throughout the OT period. Abraham bought the place of Sarah’s burial from Ephron the Hittite who was living in Hebron (Gen 23). This became the burial site of the patriarchs: Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and wives (Gen 49:29). Esau married two wives, one of whom was a daughter of a Hittite (Gen 26:34, 36:2).

Their influence was especially great around 1450-1200 BC. God promises the Hittites into the hands of Israel but because of Israel forsaking the Lord they were left in the land (Judges 3:5). David had Ahimelech the Hittite in his band of outlaws (1 Sam 26:6). David sinned with the wife of Uriah the Hittite (1 Sam 11-12), Uriah was one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:4). Solomon used the Hittites for forced labour (1 Kg 9:20-22) and exported Egyptian chariots to the Hittites and Syrians, north of Israel (1 Kg 10:29). He also had Hittite wives (1 Kg 11:1). The Hittites were still a force in days of Jehoram and Elisha (850 BC) (2 Kg 7:6). The Hittite empire fell to the “sea people” in 1190 B.C.

The Perizzites

The Perizzites and Canaanites are frequently mentioned together. It may have been a general name for hill dwellers. They are lived with the Canaanites near Bethel and Ai (Gen 13:7) and they dwelt with the Jebusites in the hill country (Josh 11:3). The tribe of Joseph was told to take the land of the Rephaim and Perizzites (Josh 17:15). Judah and Simeon attacked and defeated the Perizzites and Canaanites to take the territory of Judah, capturing King Adonibezek and cutting off his thumbs and toes. They were among those still left in the land in Ezra’s time (Ezra 9:1).

The Rephaim or Anakim – (Heb. giants)

This people were a tribe of giants descended from Anak, who lived in the land. Their height was legendary, the Moabites and Ammonites lived in a land previously occupied by the Emin, who were as great and tall as the Anakim (Deut 2:11). King Og of Bashan was the last of the remnant of the Rephaim. He slept in a bedstead of iron, nine cubits long and 4 cubits wide (Deut 3:11, Josh 12:4, 13:12). The land of Bashan was also known as the land of the Rephaim. The town of Hebron was also known as Kiriath-arba, Arba was the father of Anak (Josh 15:14, 21:11). The valley of Rephaim formed the boundary between Judah and Benjamin (Josh 15:8, 18:16), where later David fought the Philistines (2 Sam 5:18,22).

The Rephaim were subdued by Chedorlaomer and the four kings from the east (Gen 14:5). The twelve spies reported seeing three descendants of Anak (or Nephilim). They felt as grasshoppers before them (Num 13:22,33, Deut 1:28). Moses warns the Israelites that they are about to enter the land of a people great and tall, the sons of the Anakim, reminding them of a saying, “Who can stand against the sons of Anak?” (Deut 9:2)

Joshua wiped the Anakim out of the hill country, but some escaped to the Philistines (Josh 11:21-22). Caleb drove out the three sons of Anak (Josh 15:14, Judges 1:20). The tribe appears to have lost its separate existence among the Philistines. Perhaps Goliath was a descendent of the Anakim, now living with the Philistines (6 cubits = 9 ft). Jeremiah’s prophecy against the Philistines addresses them as the remnant of the Anakim (Jer 47:5)

The Canaanites

The term Canaanites was given to the various groups that lived in the promised land (Gen 10:15). They are descendants of Noah through Ham. Canaan was cursed to be a slave of his brothers by Noah after the incident when Noah was drunk and lay naked (Gen 9:25). They lived in various places among the other inhabitants of the land, especially on the low land (Num 13:29).

The following are descendants of Canaan (Gen 10:17, 1 Chr 1:15):

The Hivites

A peaceable business people, probably nomadic. They dwelt on Mount Lebanon and other northern mountains (Josh 11:3, Judges 3:3). David’s census found them near Tyre and Sidon (2 Sam 24:7). Dinah, the daughter of Jacob and Leah was raped by Shechem the Hivite. The reprisals caused trouble between Jacob and the local inhabitants (Gen 34). Esau married two wives, one of whom was a daughter of a Hivite (Gen 36:2). The men of Gibeon, who deceived Israel into thinking they came from far away, were Hivites (Josh 9:7, 11:19). Solomon used them as forced labour (1 Kg 9:20, 2 Chr 8:7).

The Girgashites

Little is known about them, but tradition says they fled to Africa.

Amorites

It is important not to confuse these people with the Ammonites. Amorites was a general name for peoples from east of Dead Sea. The land of the Amorites was a general term for the promised land (eg. Amos 2:9-10). Gen 15:16 says that the iniquity of the Amorites was not complete (a general term). They originally came from Mesopotamia around 1875-1425 BC. At one time, the Amorites had a large kingdom that included Assyria and Babylonia. Much of their kingdom was on the east of Jordan. In 1380-1345 the Amorite king became a vassal of the Hittites. In 1792 BC Hammurabi, an Amorite, was king of Babylonia.

Abraham made an alliance with them against the four kings of the east (Gen 14:7,13). The spies reported that Amorites lived in the hill country (Num 13:29). The Israelites defeated Sihon, king of the Amorites and Og, king of Bashan, also described as an Amorite (Num 21:21-30). This victory was remembered as a significant event in Israel’s history (Judges 11:19-23, Ps 135:11, 136:19). The half tribe of Manasseh was given the land of the Amorites, from the valley of the Arnon to Mount Hermon (Num 32:33).

Amorites were resident in Ai (Josh 7:7) and the hill country (Josh 11:3). During the conquest of the south, five kings of the Amorites (Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and Eglon) made war against Gibeon (Hivites) because they had made a covenant with Israel. The Lord killed them with hailstones (Josh 10:5). In the days of Samuel, there was peace between Israel and the Amorites (1 Sam 7:14). Solomon used them as forced labour (1 Kg 9:20, 2 Chr 8:7).

Israel was warned not to worship the gods of the Amorites (Judges 6:10). Amorites were used as an example of idolatry, Ahab’s idolatry was like the Amorites (1 Kg 21:26) and Manasseh was more wicked than the Amorites (2 Kg 21:10).

The Jebusites

This group, among other places, lived in the city of Jerusalem (Josh 15:63). It was a key city, hard to conquer and was never taken until David’s day, even though the army of Jerusalem was destroyed in Joshua’s time (Josh 10). The Jebusites were not driven out, but dwelt with the people of Judah (Josh 15:63, Judges 1:21). David took the city by getting up the water shaft (2 Sam 5:6-10, 1 Chr 11:4-6). It was from a Jebusite that David purchased the land to build a temple after an angel appeared there after the plague sent as a result of David’s census (2 Sam 24:18, 1 Chr 21:15-18). Solomon used Jebusites for forced labour (1 Kg 9:20, 2 Chr 8:7). The spies reported seeing them in the hill country, along with Hittites and Amorites (Num 13:29).

Other significant enemies:

The Philistines

It is thought that the Philistines came from the island of Crete after the collapse of the Minoan Empire. In Egyptian inscriptions, they were called the “sea peoples”. They failed to invade Egypt, so they settled along the coast of Palestine from Joppa to Gaza. Their five leading cities were Ekron, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath and Gaza. The Philistines had a more advanced material civilisation than the Israelites and were able to produce tools and implements made of iron. The Israelites went down to the Philistines to sharpen their farm implements (1 Sam 13:19).

Jer 47:4 connects the Philistines and Caphtor in Hebrew parallelism. The Caphtorim came from Caphtor and settled on the sea coast (Deut 2:23). Likewise in Zeph 2:5 the Philistines are connected to the Cerethites, who are thought to come from Crete or that area. Pictures of their armour, especially their distinctive feathered head-dress is found on Egyptian reliefs. The name Palestine is derived from Philistia, the land of the Philistines.

The Philistines were a group of people in the promised land that Joshua never conquered (Josh 13:2). They became one of the main enemies of Israel with about 270 references in the Bible. Abraham dwelt in the land of the Philistines (Gen 21:34). Abimelech was the king of the Philistines (Gen 26:1). Both Abraham and Isaac in turn made a covenant with him. They were a constant problem to Israel.

God used the Philistines, among others, to discipline the people of Israel. Just before Eli died, they captured the ark and God retrieved it by divine judgment (1 Sam 5-6). Saul had some victories against them, but they finally beat Saul at the Battle of Mount Gilboa, when Saul killed himself rather than be humiliated by the Philistines (1 Sam 31). In David’s day they were totally subdued. Not much is heard of them after that time, apart from a prophecy against them in Zechariah ch 9. Pompey incorporated them into the province of Syria in 62 BC.

The Amalekites

The Amalekites were a nomadic people from the Sinai and Negeb area. Amalek was the grandson of Esau (Gen 36:12, 1 Chr 1:36). The mention of the land of the Amalekites in Gen 14:7 is most probably a later editorial addition, possibly by Moses or Ezra.

The first battle after the exodus was against the Amalekites at Rephidim in Sinai (Ex 17). As long as Aaron and Hur held up Moses’ hands Israel were victorious. The Lord promised to utterly wipe out Amalek (Ex 17:14). This was a major defeat, as no archaeological evidence for the Amalekites has been found after this date.

The twelve spies reported finding Amalekites in the Negeb (Num 13:29). When some Israelites disobeyed Moses and enter the land, they were defeated by Amalekites and Canaanites at Hormah (Num 14:39-45). Balaam prophesied that Amalek, the first of the nations (origin or status?) will come to destruction (Num 24:20).

King Eglon of Moab gathered Ammonites and Amalekites to defeat and oppress Israel, until judge Ehud delivered Israel by assassinating Eglon, while he was relieving himself (Judges 3:13). The Amalekites later raided Israel with the Midianites, taking their flocks and grain, like locusts, until God raised up Gideon as the deliverer (Judges 6:3).

The Amalekites caused king Saul’s final downfall when he disobeyed God by failing to kill them all, and sparing king Agag (1 Sam 15). David later raided Amalekites while he lived with king Achish in the land of the Philistines (1 Sam 27) – obviously Saul spared more than just their king.

In the story of Esther, Haman, the bad guy and enemy of Mordecai, is described as an Agagite, possibly a descendent of Agag (Esther 3:1). Saul’s disobedience possibly almost lead to a tragedy 600 years later. After Amalekite raids on Ziglag, David pursued them, killing all but 400 and recovering his wives (1 Sam 30). An Amalekite brought David news of Saul’s death, saying he had killed Saul himself. David killed him for slaying the Lord’s anointed (2 Sam 1:1). In the days of Hezekiah, Simeon destroyed the remnant of the Amalekites in the stronghold of Mt. Seir (Edom) (1 Chr 4:43).

The Ammonites and Moabites

These are descendants of Lot, by his daughters (Gen 19:37).

Edomites

These are the descendants of Esau

Conclusion

God gave Israel a warning that if they did not destroy the people in the land they would be “pricks in your eyes and thorns in your side” (Num 33:50-56). Joshua led the people over the Jordan and destroyed many cities and peoples (Josh 12). Joshua subdued the land, but not all the people died in it (Josh 11:21-23). Josh 13:1-7 gives us a list of land still to be possessed. Joshua divided up the land and it was the task of the tribes to possess it (Josh 23:4-13). In Judges the tribes seek to drive them out. Judah and the house of Joseph has success, but others fail (Judg 1:27-36). This was because the people did not break down the altars (Judg 2:2) and served Baal (Judg 2:11ff). Judg 3:3f gives us a list of nations left in the land. Judg 3:5-6 is one of the saddest verses as the promise was not fulfilled. The land was not totally theirs. They co-habited it with the various Canaanite, Hittite, and Perizzite groups. The promise of Num 33:55-56 was fulfilled.

The type of sins the Canaanites were involved in are mentioned in the Bible. This gives us an idea of the type of life in Canaan before Israel got there. Deut 9:4-5 makes it clear the nations were involved in gross wickedness. God’s judgment was pending for many years (Gen 15:14-16). Lev 18:1ff give us a list of the horrors of everyday practice in the land (Lev 18:24). Sexual sins, child sacrifice, homosexuality, and perversion with animals are listed. Deut 18:9-14 add witchcraft and the occult to the list.

Canaanite Religion

Unknown author

 

At the time of the conquest under Joshua, Canaan was a land of city-states, each king owned the land and distributed it as he wished. It was a feudal system, with each king independent and fighting each other. These once influential kingdoms were considerably decadent when Joshua began his campaign. The challenge was that each stronghold had to be conquered as a separate nation. However, the separate kingdoms united for retaliation against Israel, the five Amorite kings for example.

Archaeology has revealed a culture of fine arts and elaborate architecture. Pottery was renowned and a favourable geographical position encouraged trade with Egypt, Northern Mesopotamia and Cyprus.

The land was much coveted by the super-powers, either as an advance base for future expansion or as a base of resistance to counter or discourage any idea of invasion. At the time of the conquest (1400 – 1200 BC), Egypt was protecting Canaan, but was weak. The Tel El Amarna letters (clay tablets) record correspondence between Canaanite kings and Egypt regarding the threat of invasion. The invaders have been possibly identified as the Hebrew people.

The ethical problem raised by the genocide commanded by God can be answered by taking a closer look at the Canaanite religion.

Canaanite religion

Through archaeology, the second millennium BC Canaanite religious system has become notorious for its depravity. The Phoenician and Canaanite religions were almost identical. It was essentially a nature religion, in which the gods and goddesses were closely associated with the natural cycle of the seasons.

The religion was a crude and debased form of ritual polytheism, the sensuous fertility cult, involving worship of a particularly lewd and orgiastic kind. It proved to be more influential than any other nature religion in the Near East, ensnaring the nation of Israel.

Sacrifices were offered to the gods for two purposes: The first was to appease the god’s wrath, an act of propitiation. The second was to to strengthen the god, to enable him to bless those who worshipped him. Prized gifts resulted in greater blessing from the god, particularly when first-born male children were sacrificed.

There were many gods, these were the main ones:
El with his consort Asherah
El’s son Baal with his consort Anat
Baal was in conquest with Mot, the god of misfortune)

The most important items in a Canaanite sanctuary were the altar, the stone pillar (male deity) and the wooden pole (female deity). These sanctuaries were on the tops of hills – the high places, which are often mentioned in OT. Canaanite religion appears also to have incorporated aspects of religion from the surrounding nations into its own worship, including Teshub-Hepa – the Hurrian storm god and consort; the Oriris/Isis cult from Egypt; Shamash the Sun god; Ishtar – the bloodthirsty goddess of love and war; and Tammuz – the fertility god from Mesopotamia.

The male deities:

El

El was the original leader of the pantheon. El was a common name for a God and was used for any divine being, including the God of Israel (Gen 16:13, 21:33, 31:13, 35:7). El was a rather shadowy figure who was worshipped as “father of man” and the “father of years”. He was the creator of creators and dwelt at “the source of the two deeps”. His instructions were conveyed by messengers, to add to his remoteness. His consort was Asherat (wife), the counsellor of the gods, and known to the Israelites as Asherah.

Ba’al

The principal and more active deity was the fertility deity Baal (meaning: master, owner, lord, or husband), sometimes known as Haddu or Hadad, the god of rain and storm. Baal succeeded El as the head of the Canaanite gods. He lived in the lofty mountainous regions of the remote northern heavens. Statuettes portray him as the storm deity, wearing a short skirt and horned helmet (symbolising his strength and fertility), standing with a mace in his upraised hand and a thunderbolt at his left side. His titles included Zabul (Lord of the earth) and Aliyn (The One who prevails).

The name “Baal” normally described a local deity, together with a local name, for example: Baal of Peor (Num 25:3) or Baal-hermon (Judge 3:3). These were seen as gods of a locality, controlling the fertility of agriculture, beasts and mankind in that limited geographical area. Worship was needed to secure their favour, especially in a dry area like Palestine, with little rainfall and few springs. Baal also described the great nature god, sometimes referred to in plural (1 Kg 18:18). It was most significant that Elijah began his ministry of conflict with the prophets of Baal by declaring that it would not rain (1 Kg 17) – a direct challenge against Baal, the god of rain.

The Baal and Anat cycle described Baal’s struggle with Mot, the deity of death, drought, barrenness and misfortune, who challenged the kingship of Baal. At the height of the summer drought (when the land was dying and parched), Baal had to yield to Mot and descend to the underworld realm and was slain. Anat, the consort of Baal, revenged herself by killing Mot, after which she planted his body in the ground. Baal then recovered and a period of prosperity followed, followed once more by the resurgence of Mot. This cycle reflected the alternation of the seasons in the agricultural year. This myth was acted out each year, with accompanying magic. The recovery of Baal and marriage to Anat was the most important event of the year. The worship involved grossly sensuous rites accompanying the sacred marriage in which ritual prostitution of both sexes was a prominent feature.

The female deities

It is difficult to distinguish between the different goddesses. There appear to be three goddesses, being forms of the great goddess of love, motherhood and war.

Astarte

The names Astarte and Ashtoreth (plural Ashtaroth), meaning “Queen of heaven” appear to be used in the OT as a generic term for female fertility deities (1 Sam 7:3). Worship of these female deities was widespread over the ancient world up to Roman times, when they were known as Aphrodite (Greek), or Venus (Roman).

Asherah

Asherah was the consort of El (1 Kg 18:19). Various cult objects and symbols were associated with the worship of Asherah, in which she was thought to reside. The most prominent appears to have been some object of wood such as the image of the goddess herself, which was erected beside the altars of incense and cone pillars of the Canaanite shrines. It was held in abhorrence by the faithful Israelites, who cut them down and burned them. In the KJV, the Hebrew name “Asherah” is rendered “grove”, relating the cult object to the place it was worshipped.

Anat or Anath

The character of Anat shows the depraved nature of Canaanite religion. She was the sister and spouse of Baal. Anat was the goddess of love (fertility) and war. Both Anat and Astarte were described as the great goddesses who conceive but do not bear. Jeremiah’s home town of Anathoth contains the name Anat. Anat lamented over Baal’s descent to the underworld and took vengeance on Mot. This vengeance is described in terms appropriate to the harvesting, winnowing, roasting, grinding and sowing of corn. She make the autumn and winter seasons yield their fruits.

Cult objects such as lilies (representing sex appeal) and serpents (symbolic of fertility) were associated with the sensuous worship of Anat. Prostitution with extremely perverted sexual acts was a central part of the religious life. In contrast to Egyptian goddesses who were always clothed, Canaanite figurines were naked with exaggerated sexual organs. Vast number of these fertility figurines have been discovered in archaeological excavations.

Canaanite Religion – a stumbling block for the Israelites

It is easy to see how tempting it would be for the Israelites, used to a nomadic desert existence, only used to flocks and herds, to adopt the god and goddesses of the land, especially as the fertility and fruitfulness of the land appeared to depend on them. As the people settled to a more agricultural lifestyle, they felt the need to call on Baal to ensure that the rains would fall. It is also likely that the nomadic Israelites felt inferior to the well-developed society of the Canaanites. They continued to worship Yahweh, who was considered only as one of many gods, the god of Israel.

The sordid and debased nature of Canaanite religion stood in marked contrast to the high ethical ideals of Israel. The absolute lack of moral character in the Canaanite deities made such corrupt practices as ritual prostitution, child sacrifice and licentious worship the normal expressions of religious devotion and fervour. There could be no compromise between the morality of the God of Israel and the debased sensuality of Canaanite religion. Therefore God commanded the Israelites to utterly wipe out the inhabitants of the land. The failure of the Israelites to do this caused great problems for the next 1000 years as they intermarried with the Canaanites and attempted to worship both the Baals and Yahweh.

Other gods

Molech or Moloch

Molech was a deity associated with Ammon (1 Kg 11:7), where it is described as “the abomination of the Ammonites”. Worship of Molech involved child sacrifice, described as “making a son or daughter pass through fire as an offering to Molech” (2 Kg 23:10, also Jer 7:31, 19:5). Even kings of Judah were involved in this, Solomon built a high place for Molech east of Jerusalem (probably on the Mount of Olives) (1 Kg 11:7), others like Ahaz (2 Chr 28:3), and Manasseh (2 Kg 21:6, 2 Chr 33:6) were condemned for sacrificing their sons. Worship of Molech took place at places known as a “Topeth” (= “fire pit” in Syriac). One Topeth was in the valley of the son of Hinnom, SW of Jerusalem (2 Kg 23:10, Jer 32:35). Josiah was commended for destroying the high places of Molech during his reforms (2 Kg 23:10,13).

Chemosh

Chemosh was the god of the Moabites (1 Kg 11:7), where it is described as “the abomination of the Moabites”. The Moabites were called the people of Chemosh (Num 21:29, Jer 48:46). Worship of this god also involved child sacrifice (2 Kg 3:27). Solomon erected a high place for Chemosh in Jerusalem (1 Kg 11:7), which was finally destroyed by Josiah (2 Kg 23:13).

Dagon

Dagon was the god of the Philistines. Some people suggest that it was a sea god, half man and half fish. Otherwise it was a fertility god, the Philistine version of the Baals. The Philistines claimed that Dagon had given Samson into their hands (Judges 16:23), and rejoiced at the temple to Dagon in Gaza. When the Philistines capture the ark of the covenant from the Israelites, they placed it in the temple to Dagon in Ashdod (1 Sam 5:2). The presence of the ark caused trouble in Ashdod, including the destruction of the image of Dagon (1 Sam 5:3-5). Saul’s head and armour were captured by the Philistines and placed in the temple to Dagon, before they were recaptured by the Israelites (1 Chr 10:10).

The Jewish Calendar

The Jewish calendar was arranged around the different religious festivals which were commanded in the law of Moses. Each of these was linked to various stages in the agricultural year. This chart lists each of the months of the Jewish year and the western equivalent, together with the agricultural seasons and Jewish festivals.

	Month		Season	Special Days	Festival
1	Nisan (Abib) start of religious year	March – April	Flax harvest Spring rains	14th       Passover (Ex 12, Lev 23:5) 15-21st  Unleavened Bread (Lev 23:6) 21st        Passover – last day (Lev 23:8)	1   2
2	Iyyar	April – May	Barley harvest Dry season starts	14th       Later Passover (Num 9:11)
3	Sivan	May – June	Early figs ripen	6th         Pentecost (Weeks, Harvest)                  (Lev 23:15, Deut 16:9) (7 weeks after Passover)	3
4	Tammuz	June – July	Grape harvest
5	Ab	July – Aug	Early olive harvest Summer wheat
6	Elul	Aug – Sept	Dates Summer figs
7	Tishri start of civil year	Sept – Oct	First rains (former rains)	1st        Trumpets (Lev 23:24) 10th      Day of Atonement                   (Lev 16:29, 23:27) 15-21st Tabernacles (Booths) (Ingathering) (Lev 23:34, Deut 16:13) 21st       Tabernacles – last day	4 5   6     7
8	Marchesvan	Oct – Nov	Late olive harvest Winter figs Ploughing
9	Kislev	Nov – Dec	Sowing	25th       Feast of Light (Hanukkah) (1 Macc 4:52,59) (Dedication of the temple)
10	Tebeth	Dec – Jan	Rains and snow (latter rains)
11	Shebat	Jan – Feb	Almond blossom
12	Adar	Feb – March	Citrus fruit harvest	14th        Feast of Purim (Esther 9:16)
13	Ve-Adar (leap month)			Once every three years

* “Three times a year all your males shall appear before the LORD your God at the place that he will chose: at the festival of unleavened bread, at the festival of weeks, and at the festival of booths” (Deut 16:16, also Ex 23:14-17)

Antiochus IV – Epiphanes

The “Contemptible Person” predicted by Daniel (Dan 11:21)

Julian Spriggs, M.A.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled in Antioch in Syria over the Seleucid kingdom. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, there was civil war, until his empire was divided between four of his generals. Seleucus I established a dynasty, known as the Seleucids, which lasted about 250 years, ruling over a large empire stretching from Asia Minor, through Syria, and including much of Alexander’s eastern territories. To establish their power over such a large territory containing so many different nations and peoples, the Seleucids engaged in a policy of active Hellenisation, the promotion of Greek culture, religion and philosophy. During this time, the dynasty of the Ptolemies controlled Egypt. Israel lay on the frontier between these rival powers, and was frequently fought over, first being under Egyptian control, and later under Syrian control.

Sources of information

The events of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes are described in several different historical documents. The main source is the apocryphal book of 1 Maccabees, which is recognised by most scholars as a historically reliable document. Antiochus is also described in 2 Maccabees, where the account is considered to be less reliable. Josephus describes his reign and the subsequent Jewish revolt in his Antiquities of the Jews (12:4-9).

Predictions of Antiochus Epiphanes

The prophet Daniel made a remarkable prediction of his reign (Dan 11:21-35), although many scholars who reject the possibility of predictive prophecy believe it must have been written after the events it describes. He is also predicted as the “little horn” (Dan 8:9-15), who followed the male goat (Alexander the Great) who charged over the face of the whole earth, whose horn was broken and replaced by four horns (8:5,21-22).

Family background

Antiochus IV was the third son of Antiochus III the Great, and queen Laodice III. He was born in 215 BC. His older brother ruled as Seleucus IV. Antiochus ruled from Antioch from 175 to 163 BC.

Hostage in Rome

His father, Antiochus the Great, attempted to capture Greece, but was pushed back by the Romans. “Afterward he shall turn to the coastlands, and shall capture many. But a commander shall put an end to his insolence; indeed, he shall turn his insolence back upon him.” (Dan 11:18). He was decisively defeated in the Battle of Magnesia (189 BC). In the subsequent Treaty of Apamea, he lost all territory in Asia Minor north and west of the Taurus Mountains to the Romans. His son, Antiochus, was held as one of twenty hostages in Rome for fourteen years, to ensure that the huge reparations demanded by Rome were paid. These payments to Rome emptied the Seleucid treasury, causing them to seek alternative sources of income, either through punitive taxation, or by plundering treasures from the Jerusalem temple.

 

In 176 BC, he was eventually replaced as hostage by his nephew Demetrius, son of Seleucus IV. During his years in Rome he became an admirer of Roman power and institutions, in addition to his dedication to spreading the Greek way of life. Antiochus then moved to Athens, where he became popular because he built temples at his own expense. He was made an honorary citizen and was soon appointed as chief magistrate and Master of the Mint.

Accession to the throne

Following the death of Antiochus III in 187 BC, his son Seleucus IV Philopator, the older brother of Antiochus IV, ascended the throne. However in 175 BC, Seleucus was murdered by Heliodorus, his chief minister, who then proclaimed himself as king. When Antiochus heard about this, he came to Antioch from Athens, and with the help of the king of Pergamum, removed Heliodorus and proclaimed himself to be king. By this, he usurped the throne because he excluded two rightful heirs: Demetrius, the son of Seleucus IV, who was still a hostage in Rome, as well as the infant son of Seleucus, also called Antiochus. Daniel predicted that a contemptible person would arise, upon whom the royal majesty has not been conferred, and obtain the kingdom through intrigue. “In his place shall arise a contemptible person on whom royal majesty has not been conferred; he shall come in without warning and obtain the kingdom through intrigue.” (Dan 11:21). This appears to be a clear prediction of Antiochus usurping the throne.

There was a continuing power struggle between Antiochus IV and the supporters of his nephew, the baby son of Seleucus IV, who claimed he was the rightful king, also called Antiochus IV! For several years both ruled as joint kings. The child was eventually murdered around 170 BC by Andronicus while Antiochus was absent.

Local popularity

Contemporary writings from Syria describe Antiochus in flattering ways. People appreciated his generous and democratic ways. He enjoyed practical jokes, and sometime would disguise himself and roam the streets of the city at night. He was a good soldier and administrator. After the loss of western territory in Asia Minor following the Treaty of Apamea with Rome, he sought to expand his empire to the east and into Egypt. In contrast, the Jews saw him as an evil enemy who attempted to wipe them out.

Zeus made manifest

As an attempt to bring unity to his divided empire, especially following the violent changes in ruler, he greatly increased the Hellenisation programme started by his predecessors. After 169 BC, he encouraged his people to worship him as the Greek god Zeus, taking the title “Theos Epiphanes”, meaning “the manifest God”, believing that he was an incarnation of Zeus. His enemies called him “Epimanes”, meaning “mad-man”, a change which only required altering a single letter in the Greek. Later in his reign, Antiochus IV became the first king to issue coins on which he proclaimed himself to be a god. He was portrayed as Zeus enthroned with the inscription, “King Antiochus. God Manifest, Bearing Victory” .

Hellenising influences on the Jews

Until the reign of Antiochus III, Israel had been under the control of the Egyptian Ptolemies. They had been content to allow the Jews substantial freedom to maintain their religious practices, and had not enforced Hellenisation. In 198 BC, after Antiochus III gained victory over Scopas, the general of Ptolemy V, at Panion, Israel came under his control. Although the Seleucids initially promised not to enforce Greek practices, and were welcomed into Jerusalem, they failed to keep their word, which led to a terrible period of Jewish history. The pressure of Hellenisation caused intense conflict within the Jews and their division into two competing groups. The pro-Greek faction saw the need to modernise Judaism by embracing Greek thinking and lifestyle. This was seen as compromise by the conservative Hasidim (“pious ones”), who said they must maintain their distinctiveness and their faithfulness to Moses. Over the next centuries, the pro-Greek Jews developed into the Sadducees, and the Hasidim became the Pharisees.

This conflict extended even to the high-priesthood. There was a power struggle between the conservative Aaronic high priest Onias III, and his brother Yeshua (Joshua), better known by the Greek version of his name, Jason, who was supported by Menelaus of the house of Tobiah. Jason and Menelaus desired to introduce Hellenistic culture. Jason offered a large sum of money to Antiochus IV to be appointed high priest (2 Macc 4:7-10). This offer was attractive to Antiochus, partly because he urgently needed the finances, and especially because he would then have a supporter of his Hellenising policies ruling in Jerusalem. He therefore deposed Onias III in 174 BC, fulfilling the prediction of Daniel that the prince of the covenant will be swept away (Dan 11:22), and appointed Jason to be high priest.

Jason converted Jerusalem into a model Hellenistic city (polis), and possibly even renamed it “Antioch”. As a deliberate offense to the Hasidim he constructed a gymnasium adjacent to the temple (1 Macc 1:14, 2 Macc 4:12), the greatest representation of the Greek way of life, where the athletes exercised naked. Some Jewish males attempted to remove their marks of circumcision through painful surgery in order to appear like Greeks (1 Macc 1:15, Jos. Ant. 12:5:1). Three years later, Menelaus offered a larger sum of money to Antiochus to buy the high-priesthood (2 Macc 4:23). Jason was deposed, and fled to the Trans-jordan. Onias was executed, after he objected to Menelaus plundering the temple treasury to pay for the bribe (2 Macc 4:34). His death ended the hereditary priestly line of Aaron, as Menelaus may have been of the tribe of Benjamin (2 Macc 4:23, 3:4). Other manuscripts suggest he may have been from a priestly family, but not from the house of Zadok. Subsequent high priests were political appointments made by the Seleucid rulers.

Wars with Egypt

During the reign of Antiochus III, he had made a peace treaty with Egypt, through which Cleopatra, the sister of Antiochus IV, had married Ptolemy V of Egypt (Jos. Ant. 12:4:1, predicted in Dan 11:17). After the death of Ptolemy V in 181 BC, Cleopatra I reigned in her own right as queen-regent, because her son Ptolemy VI was too young. When she died in 176 BC, the throne was seized by two courtiers. When Antiochus heard about Egyptian plots to regain control over Coele-Syria, Antiochus IV marched south, taking control of Coele-Syria, and was welcomed to Jerusalem by Jason in order to plan its defences against Egypt.

First Egyptian War (1 Macc 1:16-19)

In 170 BC, Antiochus heard about plots in Egypt to march north to recover Coele-Syria. He gathered a large army and invaded Egypt. This first invasion was largely successful (Dan 11:25-27). He conquered most of Egypt, including Memphis, where he took the young Ptolemy VI Philometor captive. His brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes (“Benefactor”) was appointed king in Alexandria. Antiochus then returned to Syria, hoping that Egypt would be left weak, having two rival kings.

While Antiochus was in Egypt, trouble broke out in Jerusalem. The people rioted after Menelaus plundered the temple treasury. Also, a rumour began to spread around Jerusalem that Antiochus had been killed in Egypt (2 Macc 5:5). When Jason, the deposed high-priest, heard about this, he returned and attacked Jerusalem, killed the supporters of Menelaus, and appointed himself once again as high priest. When Antiochus heard about the battles in Jerusalem, he stormed the city with the aim of restoring peace. He took the uprising against Menelaus and the Hellenisers as a rebellion against his own authority. He could not risk losing control of Jerusalem, as it formed an important part of his defences against Egypt. He massacred thousands of Jews, and Menelaus was restored as high-priest. Jason was driven out and again took refuge in the Trans-jordan. Antiochus stationed Syrian troops in the Acra Fortress to maintain peace. Some historians, such as Bruce, think the Acra was not built until after the second Egyptian war.

Antiochus profaned the temple by entering the Holy of Holies accompanied by Menelaus, with whose permission he took away a large quantity of gold and silver vessels as plunder to finance his planned second attack of Egypt (1 Macc 1:20-24, 2 Macc 5:21), and even stripped the gold leaf off the facade. Daniel predicted that Antiochus would return to his land with great wealth (Dan 11:28). Antiochus’ entry to the Holy of Holies and plundering of the temple horrified the conservative Jews, who now classed him as an enemy of Judaism.

Second Egyptian War (2 Macc 5:1)

In the spring of 168 BC, Antiochus marched for a second time on Egypt (11:29), because the two Ptolemies had joined forces against him, their uncle. This time he had even stronger military forces, but did not achieve the same success as before. Again, he captured Memphis, and then marched to Alexandria. Meanwhile, Roman forces had arrived in Egypt, “the ships of Kittim” predicted by Daniel (Dan 11:30). Before he could take Alexandria, he was met by the Roman representative, Popillus Laenas, who had been his friend during his years as a hostage in Rome. Refusing to shake his hand and greet him as a friend, Laenas instead handed him a written ultimatum from the Roman Senate, telling him to leave Egypt immediately. He asked for time to consider and to consult his advisers, but Laenas drew a circle in the sand around Antiochus with his sword, and demanded an answer before he stepped out of the circle. Being already familiar with the power of Rome, he did not dare to disobey, but he agreed to retreat. Only then would Laenas shake his hand on the basis of past friendship. Antiochus was angry and humiliated that his dream of dominating Egypt had been frustrated.

Attack on the Jews

In his frustration he expressed his anger by attacking Jerusalem. He needed a secure frontier in the south against the new threat of Roman power in Egypt. He could no longer allow Jerusalem to follow a religion different from the rest of his kingdom. In 167 BC, he sent a force of 22,000 soldiers, led by Apollonius to Jerusalem. Pretending to come in peace, they attacked the city on the Sabbath, in full knowledge that orthodox Jews would not fight on their holy day, and slaughtered many of its inhabitants (1 Macc 1:31-35, 2 Macc 5:24-26, and predicted in Dan 11:31a). They took many women and children captive as slaves, then plundered and burned the city, and pulled down its walls.

He then began a violent policy of Hellenisation. He made a decree forbidding Jews from following the laws of their ancestors, thus cancelling the concessions to the Jews made by his father. Observance of the Sabbath, sacrifices, yearly festivals and circumcision of male infants was made illegal. He ordered that copies of the Torah should be destroyed. Under penalty of death, Jews were “to depart from the laws of their fathers, and to cease living by the laws of God”. Pagan altars were set up all over the land. Jews were forced to eat the unclean meat of pigs (2 Macc 6:18-31). The temple was to be polluted and renamed as a temple to Olympian Zeus. The Samaritan temple on Mt. Gerizim was also renamed at the “Temple of Zeus-the-friend of Strangers” (2 Macc 6:2). The Jews saw this decree as a deliberate attempt to destroy their faith. Disobedience to his decree was punished by death. For example, two women who had circumcised their children were paraded around the city with the babies hanging from their breasts, then hurled down the city wall (2 Macc 6:10). Jews were forced to participate in pagan sacrifices, and were compelled to wear ivy wreaths in honour of the Greek god Dionysus (2 Macc 6:7).

The climax of the desecrations came on Chislev 25 (16th December 167 BC), when he erected a statue of Zeus (himself!) in the temple. Then, on an altar erected on the top of the altar of burnt offering, pigs were offered to Zeus (1 Macc 1:54-61, predicted in Dan 11:31b). This was the ultimate blasphemy for Jews, to see the unclean blood of a pig sacrificed on the altar, thus desecrating the temple. Antiochus ordered that these sacrifices should be repeated on the 25th of each month, in celebration of his birthday, implying that the sacrifices were being made to himself.

In Syria, Olympian Zeus was identified with the god they called “Ba’al Shamen”, meaning “the lord of heaven”. So in Jerusalem, Zeus was worshipped with the equivalent Hebrew name “Ba’al Shamayim”. Some extreme Hellenising Jews probably considered Zeus or Ba’al shamayim as the same as Yahweh, the “Lord of heaven”. Pious Jews refused to say the word “Ba’al”, so said “shiqqus”, meaning abomination, in its place. So amongst Jews, Ba’al Shamayim became “shiqqus shomem”, translated into English as “the Abomination of Desolation”, or “the Desolating Sacrilege”.

Instead of achieving his aim of uniting his empire around Hellenistic religion and culture, his plan backfired and sparked off the Jewish rebellion, which ultimately led to him losing control of Israel. He severely underestimated the intense devotion to the Jewish religion by the people of Israel. As Greek-thinking polytheists, the Seleucid rulers, including Antiochus, could probably not understand the exclusiveness of the Jews, and their reaction in such hostility. He probably also thought that the pro-Greek parties within Judaism represented the majority view of the people. A small group of Jews escaped from Jerusalem, led by Mattathias and his five sons including Judas, to avoid the defilement of the city. In the village of Modein, this family of the Maccabees started a violent uprising against the rule of Antiochus, which became the Jewish revolt.

Antiochus had left Jerusalem in order to deal with troubles in Armenia and Persia in 165 BC, where they were refusing to pay their taxes. From here, he heard about the Jewish revolt and sent Lysias to put down the rebellion, exterminate the Jewish people, and redistribute their land (1 Macc 3:32-36). Lysias was in charge of the king’s affairs in the area of his kingdom west of the Euphrates, as well as being guardian of his son Antiochus. Lysias left part of the army led by Ptolemy and Gorgias at Emmaus where they were decisively defeated by Judas Maccabeus and his freedom fighters (1 Macc 4:1-22). A year later, Lysias himself led another army to attack Jerusalem from the south, but they also were soundly defeated at Beth-zur (1 Macc 4:28ff).

Thus, after three years of fighting for their freedom, the Maccabees were able to recapture Jerusalem and regain control of the temple. Exactly three years to the day after the initial desecration, on Chislev 25 (16th December 164 BC), they cleaned and rededicated the temple to Yahweh (1 Macc 4:52-58). This event is remembered annually in the Jewish Feast of Dedication (John 10:22, 1 Macc 4:59), which in Hebrew is called “Hanukkah”.

Final campaign in Persia

Antiochus was now desperately short of finances. He had heard of the riches of the temple to Artemis in Elymais in Persia, where gold shields and weapons had been left by Alexander the Great (1 Macc 6:1-2). He decided to plunder it, but the citizens knew of his approach, and were able to defend their city. In disappointment, he retreated to Babylon. News came to him there of the successes of the Maccabean revolt, and their tearing down of the abomination in the temple. This badly shook Antiochus, who took to his bed sick or even insane with disappointment. In his dying days he regretted the wrong he did in Jerusalem, realising that his death had been caused by the miseries he had brought on the people of Jerusalem (1 Macc 6:12, Jos Ant 12:9:1).

After his death in 163 BC, in a strange land, his young nine year old son Antiochus V Eupator (meaning, “having a noble father”) was proclaimed king by Lysias who Antiochus had left in charge in Antioch. However, on his deathbed, Antiochus Epiphanes had appointed Philip to ruling as regent and guardian (1 Macc 6:14-15). This appointment caused a division and civil war within the kingdom.

The legacy of Antiochus Epiphanes

Antiochus was remembered by the Jews as the insane king who inflicted terrible persecution on them. Over the next few centuries, Jews were inspired by the successful Maccabean fight for freedom, as they continued to suffer under foreign domination from the Romans. Jews today still remember this victory in the annual festival of Hanukkah. It is probable that the Syrians remember him more positively as a generally popular king, who popularised Greek culture, but made a great mistake in trying to extinguish Judaism.

In Matthew’s account of the Olivet Discourse, when Jesus predicted the destruction of the temple and his second coming, he warned his listeners to flee from Judea to the mountains when they saw the desolating sacrilege standing in the holy place that was spoken about by Daniel the prophet (Mt 24:15). By this, he was predicting that desecration of the temple performed under Antiochus Epiphanes would be repeated again in the future. This probably happened by the hands of the Zealots during the Jewish revolt and Fall of Jerusalem in A.D.70, although many people expect a similar desecration of a rebuilt temple in Jerusalem by the eschatological antichrist.

Bibliography:

J. Bright. A History of Israel. SCM Press 1980. Pages 418-427.
F.F. Bruce. Israel and the Nations. Paternoster 1963. Pages 134-153.
H.W. Hoehner. Antiochus in Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopaedia of the Bible. ed. MC Tenney. Zondervan 1975.
R.L. Niswonger. New Testament History. Zondervan 1988. Pages 24-28.
C.J. Roetzel. The World that Shaped the New Testament. John Knox Press 1985. Pages 11-13.
B.K. Waltke. Antiochus IV Epiphanes in International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia (ISBE) ed. GW Bromiley. Eerdmans 1986.
L.J. Wood. A Survey of Israel’s History. Zondervan 1986. Pages 355-357.

The Persian Empire

Unknown author

The Medes

The area of Media was south of the Caspian Sea, and north-east of the Tigris River, north and east of the Babylonian empire. In 745-727, Assyria attacked some of the tribes of the Medes as they were a threat to them. Before this, in the 8th cent, Media provided many horses for the Assyrians.

In 722 BC, Sargon II placed many of the exiled people of Israel in the cities of the Medes (2 Kg 17:5-6, 18:11), which he controlled. As the Assyrian empire weakened, the strength of the Medes increased. In 615 Cyaxares marched on Nineveh and was repulsed. The Babylonian king Nabopolassar made a treaty with Cyaxares which was sealed by the marriage of Amytis, granddaughter of Cyaxares, to his son and heir Nebuchadnezzar, and together they took Nineveh three years later in 612 BC.

The Persians:

At the time that interests us, the Persian peoples lived east of the Elamites and along the Zagros mountain range to the east. When the Assyrians were fighting along their eastern border they would often come across Persians along with other various tribes. Around 675 BC, the Persians gained freedom from the Median Empire under Kishpish. His title was “King, king great, king of the city Anshan”. His older son became king over the area of Persia, while his younger son Cyrus, was given Anshan, the area east of Elam. The house of the younger served the older until the son of Cyrus, Cambyses I married the daughter of the Median king Astyages. Their first born son Cyrus II is one of the most celebrated kings in history, the one Isaiah called “my shepherd, and his anointed” (Is 44:28, 45:1).

In 559 BC, Cyrus II became king of Anshan and made an alliance with Nabonidus, the usurper of Babylon. Together, they conquered most of the land nearby and most of south west Asia. In 539, Cyrus overthrew Babylon from the insecure regime of Belshazzar (Dan 5). Nabonidus had made him regent while he was off on military campaigns in Arabia. (Darius the Mede mentioned in Dan 5:30 should not be confused with Darius, King of Persia from 521-486. This Darius is probably Gubaru, governor of Babylon under Cyrus).

The Babylonian Empire was in no condition to resist the Medes and Persians. Nabonidus had not even visited the city for fourteen years but left the administration to his son Belshazzar. the Persians took the city without a fight. He diverted the Euphrates, enabling the invaders to march in on the dried up river bed by night. When Cyrus entered, there was public rejoicing and a peace settlement was quickly reached.

Gubaru (Darius) was appointed sub-governor. Cyrus is seen as a man of generous and benevolent character. He ruled his empire by allowing each province a remarkable degree of autonomy and freedom of religion and custom. He built roads, cities, a postal system, and parks. The “Cyrus Cylinder” in the British Museum records how he captured Babylon without a fight and his edict allowing the Jews to return to Jerusalem, as in Ezra ch 1.

In 530 BC, the kingdom passed to his son Cambyses II. He put down various attempts to put down the throne and extended the empire south-west into Egypt. It is thought that Cambyses II committed suicide in 522. The army supported a distant cousin named Darius. He was commander of the troops under Cambyses and was able to hold the empire. He built a palace at Susa, the ancient Elamite city. To the west Darius extended the empire to conquer the Greek coastal cities of Asia Minor. He reorganised the political system, dividing the empire into Satrapies. He introduced a new currency – the Daric.

In 490, Athens fought Persia, and defeated them at Marathon. In 485, Darius died and Xerxes ascended to the throne and dealt with an Egyptian revolt. Egypt was reduced to slavery. This Xerxes is the Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther. In 480, he built a bridge across the Hellespont and invaded Greece. Later that year, he reached Athens but was defeated in battle at Thermopylae in 480 BC. The Persians were defeated the next year at Salamis and withdrew from Greece.

The reigns after Xerxes experienced increasing rebellion and had incompetent rulers. The Greeks, after the battles of 480 BC, realized that the only way to rid themselves of the Persians was to unite and fight. Philip of Macedonia planned such a venture. After his death, Alexander set out to bring Persia under Greek control. In November 333, Alexander won against incredible odds. He opened up the Hellenistic age, with the Greek language, customs and manners triumphing over all others. After the death of Alexander in 323, his four generals divided and fought over the empire. Persia fell to Seleucus, founder of the Seleucid Empire.

Kings of Media

Cyaxares      625 – 585
Astyages       585 – 550

Kings of Persia

Cyrus II                     550 – 530
Cambyses                  530 – 521
Smerdis                     521
Darius I                     521 – 486
Xerxes (Ahasuerus)    486 – 464
Artaxerxes I               464 – 423
Darius II                    423 – 404
Artaxerxes II              404 – 359
Artaxerxes III             359 – 338
Arses                         338 – 336
Darius III                   336 – 331

Government Administration

The Persian empire was divided into Satrapies (provinces) for the administration of the huge empire, which covered sixty nations. The number of satrapies varied between 20 and 29. The power of each satrap varied from area to area. Some minted their own silver, as the king did. Others commanded armies, repaired roads and collected taxes.

Each Satrapy was subdivided into secondary and tertiary units, to enable effective administration.
The secondary units were called Governorates (“medinah”), sometimes called provinces (Est 1:1). These were divided according to previous Assyrian and Babylonian districts. The number of these varies eg. 127 provinces (Est 1:1). Each was presided over by an official (“pihat”) known as “His Excellency” (Neh 10:2, Ezra 2:63, Neh 8:9). In addition to the Governorates each Satrapy included a number of cities or regions ruled by local dynasties, territories of semi-nomadic tribes, and royal fortresses.

Governorates were subdivided into tertiary units called Districts which correspond to the administrative areas used by the kings of Judah and Israel. They consisted of one or two towns and a number of villages.

Disputes between various administrative units, and even civil wars between satraps were nothing unusual. We see it recorded in scripture, where Samaritan authorities interfered in the affairs of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7-23).

The administrative division of Palestine in the Persian period reflects the wisdom of Persian rule. Under the general supervision of the satrap at Damascus, autonomous nations governed by native governors, lived side by side with trading cities and royal fortresses, while around them, on the edge of the desert, roved nomad tribes, free allies of the King.

Official communications were made in Aramaic, but also translated into the relevant local tongues.

The Land beyond the River

The Fifth Satrapy was called “the land beyond the River” (“Eber Nari”), the river being the Euphrates. This Satrapy covered the area from the city of Posidium (Northern Syria) to the borders of Egypt, excluding the district of Arabia which was tax free. The Governor or Satrap resided in Damascus. Within Judah there were six districts and twelve subdistricts.

Judah was called Yehud, and was a province under the satrap of Eber Nari. The governor was assisted by the High Priest and Council of Elders. We know of only six of the governors of Judah:
1. Sheshbazzar (Ezra 5:14).
2. Zerubbabel. Called by the prophet Haggai, “governor of Judah” (Hag 1:1).
3. Nehemiah (Neh 5:14,18) (Artaxerxes I 465-425 BC)
4. Bigoai or Bagohi (408 BC)
5. Yehoezer
6. Ahio

The province of Judah was roughly the shape of a rectangle. It extended from north to south along the watershed of the Mediterranean and the Jordan Valley, from Ramallah to the neighbourhood of Hebron; and in the east-west direction it stretched from the Jordan to the foot of the Mediterranean. (40 km N-S, 50 km E-W; total area 2000 sq km, of which a third was desert). The surplus of population, smallness of cultivable area, and the long period of peace under Persian rule lead to extension of Jewish settlements into the coastal plains and the mountains north of Judah.
Military Organisation

The Persian army was the chief support of the Empire’s power. At first, only Persians themselves were used as soldiers. But as the Empire grew, men from every country within it began to take part. Commanders remained Persian, but the troops were made up of men from many different countries. Each specialized unit of fighters was arranged by nationality. Each soldier was permitted to use his own armour and weapons. Eventually this weakened the army considerably. Combinations of camel riders and chariots were not uncommon, and they could not function very well together in battle.

Capitals and Palaces

Palaces of the Persian king housed an extremely large number of people and animals. The king himself, his wives and concubines, members of the royal family and Persian nobles all lived in separate palace buildings. Guests, royal messengers and hundreds of servants lived in the palace area as well. Even horses, mules and camels were kept in palace stables, ready for immediate use. Other buildings on the palace grounds were for keeping royal records and maintaining the treasury.

Harems consisted of a courtyard with small, stuffy rooms around the sides, one for each concubine or wife. In a large harem there would be several courts, especially separating foreign policy wives, who each had their own area, wives for pleasure and concubines. The women spent their days in the courtyards. Women who displeased the king were locked up in their small room where they soon sickened and died. Others were executed or drowned.

Susa

Susa, the location of the Winter Palace, was Located in south west Iran. The climate was mixed, majestic mountains almost encircle the city and provide shield against frigid winter winds. Snow fed streams descending those mountains fed the fertile, rich soil. But the same mountains cut off cool northerly breezes for nine months of the year and Susa becomes hot, parched and breathless. The plant life was abundant and in the spring nurtured deadly snakes. The air was full of disease carrying insects. Once the home of elephants and wild cattle as well, the river thickets of Susa sheltered lions, bears, panthers and other wild creatures.

Today the mound of earth that once was the ancient city covers almost 5,000 acres. But this is only a fraction of the great city, which rose and spread over centuries to cover nearly 36,000 acres. The city was built in the shape of a falcon with its wings outspread.

The findings of archaeologists reveal that Susa was a fairly well-developed city even in early times. The earliest known code of law was found there, the Code of Hammurabi, named after a king of that period. The temples and palaces of many different rulers and peoples over many generations were built in Susa, which finally became the capital of the kingdom of Elam.

When Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, conquered Elam, he took possession of Susa. His successor, Darius the Great, restored many of the city’s ancient palaces. He added new royal buildings, some directly on top of an Elamite graveyard.

The palace built by Darius was decorated with rainbow-glazed reliefs of mythical beasts and archers. Tapestries covered the walls in splashes of white, green and violet. The throne was 250 sq. ft. Guests feasted and lounged on couches of gold and silver, surrounded by objects made of precious stones and metals.

For two centuries, Susa was most important as the administrative capital of the Persian Empire. Filled with people from all over the Empire and from other countries, it rivalled Babylon as the most sophisticated and cosmopolitan city in the area.

The other cities included, Ecbatana, where the king’s Summer Palace was located; and Persepolis, which was the official capital. The palace was occupied only in the spring months.

Persian Kings

A person wanting to see the King made an appointment through the scribes and secretaries. On the day he was to visit the king, he was checked over by guards at the entrance, inside the palace, and even in the throne room itself. High-ranking people usually bowed or knelt on one knee before the King. Lower-ranking visitors, or a noble with a particularly urgent request, fell on the ground before the throne, prostrating themselves. The purpose of the visit was quickly stated, if necessary the king consulted with his advisors, the request was answered and the visitor took his leave. Unscheduled audiences were not permitted, the offender usually being arrested, tortured and put to death. The offender only became safe if the king held out his sceptre (Est 5:2). The sceptre was a long stick decorated, topped with a knob of gold or precious stone.

The king was believed to have descended from the gods, his person was thought to be sacred. His coronation day was considered his birthday as he was “reborn” as king and given a new throne name. From that time on he ate behind a gold mesh curtain to shield himself from the sight of others. He alone had the power to decree life or death. At his death, family and servants mourned so greatly at the loss of his “personal fire” that they sometimes maimed themselves or committed suicide.

Rings were used as signatures. Rings had a design on them representing that particular king and were used like a seal.

Bibliography:
Michael Avi-Yonah. The Holy Land: From the Persian to the Arab Conquest. A Historical Geography
Edwin M. Yamauchi. Persia and the Bible. Baker 1990.
A Survey of the Old Testament : Introduction by Gleason L. Archer
The Book of Life Vol.15 : Return to the Land by V. Gilbert Beers

Babylon and its history

Unknown author

The City of Babylon

Babylon was situated about fifty miles south of present day Baghdad in Iraq. During the time of Nabopolassar, Babylon became most important city in the world. It was a huge city on both sides of the Euphrates, with the river dividing the city into two almost equal parts. Both banks of the river were guarded by brick walls, with twenty-five gates connecting the streets with ferry boats. There was one bridge, built on stone piers, one kilometre long and ten metres wide. It had drawbridges which were removed at night. There was also a tunnel under the river five metres wide and four metres high. In Mesopotamia, there was no stone, only clay, so the walls were made with bricks. Houses had walls made of clay.
The walls of Babylon

The walls were described by historians Josephus and Herodotus. They were double walls 100 metres high, forming a wide rectangle nearly twenty kilometres around the city. The walls continued below ground to prevent tunnelling. They were built with thirty centimetre square bricks, which were ten centimetres thick.

The inner wall of the city, consisted of two parallel walls of brick twelve metres apart, about seven metres thick. The space between was filled with rubble, making the total thickness about twenty-five metres. Beyond the inner wall were wide deep moats, filled with water. The outer wall was built in the same manner. The walls contained one hundred brass gates.

250 high watch towers were built upon the wall, with guard rooms for the soldiers. There was a quarter mile of clear space between and city and the wall all the way round. They thought their city was totally impregnable.

The most famous gate was the Ishtar Gate with glazed bricks and carved reliefs, which was at the end of a processional avenue 250 metres long, and twenty metres wide.

Temples

There was a great temple adjoining the Tower of Babylon (Babel?) and fifty-five smaller altars to Marduk. The temple to Marduk (Bel) was 500 metres square. The golden image of Bel and a golden table stood in the temple, weighed at least 22,000 kg. At the top were golden images of Bel and Ishtar, two golden lions, a golden table ten metres long and five metres wide and a human figure of solid gold six metres high. Babylon was truly a “City of gold” (Is 14:4). The image of gold (Dan 3:1) may have been set up between the Tower of Babylon and the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar.

There were also 300 altars to other gods and 600 altars to other heavenly deities. There were also 180 altars to Ishtar (like Ashtoreth), the goddess of fertility. It was considered a duty for every woman in the empire to be a temple prostitute at one time or another in her life. You can imagine how Daniel functioned in the midst of this. It took great wisdom and tact. Babylon was a very religious empire. Nebuchadnezzar named himself after the god Nebo, the god of destiny. Both the Babylonians and the Persians felt they were destined to conquer the world.

 

Marduk was the storm god or child god (similar to Baal). Nebo was the god of science, leaning and destiny. Shamask was the god of the heavens. Other gods were Sin, Gala and Adad.

Nebuchadnezzar’s Palace

This was one of the most magnificent buildings ever erected on the earth. Daniel often went into this. Its vast ruins were uncovered around 1900. The south walls of the throne room were six metres thick. The north side was protected by three walls. Just north of them were more walls twelve metres thick and more massive walls further away.

The Hanging Gardens

The hanging gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world described by the Greek Historian Herodotus. Nebuchadnezzar married a Median queen, the beautiful daughter of Cyaxeres, who had helped Nebuchadnezzar conquer Nineveh. She came from the mountains and so was accustomed to greenery. Nebuchadnezzar built the famous hanging gardens for her, a huge terraced garden, on the top of the palace, watered with water from a reservoir at the top. The water was lifted by a hydraulic pump from the River Euphrates, by slaves turning screws to raise the waters. There were several tiers of arches, above each other, each bearing a solid platform 120 metres square. The terraces on the top were covered with flowers, shrubs and trees. In the arches were luxurious apartments, the pleasure ground of the palace. The gardens were built while Daniel was chief governor of the wise men of Babylon.

The History of Babylon

Nimrod the mighty warrior founded Babylon and other cities around 2500 BC (Gen 10:9). The Tower of Babel (Gen 11) was probably a ziggurat, a temple to the moon god, a tower built with its top in the heavens. The people didn’t want to be dispersed around the world. Babel was named because God confused the language (Gen 11:9). The word “Babel” means “gate of el” or “confusion”. Babylon was founded on rebellion against God. Throughout the Bible, Babylon and Jerusalem are opposed: Babylon being the kingdom of Satan, and Jerusalem the kingdom of God.

The Early Babylonian Empire

Babylon became the centre of an earlier empire, which is not mentioned much in the Bible. One of the kings, Hammurabi is famous for his law code.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th century BC)

The Neo-Babylonian empire was only short lived. It reached its zenith under Nebuchadnezzar (605 – 562) and came to an end only seventy years after its beginning when Cyrus of Persia took Babylon in 539 BC.

During the time of the Assyrian Empire, Babylonia was under their rule. It was destroyed and rebuilt a couple of times. At the death of Shalmaneser V (during the fall of Samaria 722), Merodach-Baladan proclaimed Babylon’s independence. With Elamite support (people from east of River Tigris), he held out against the Assyrians for ten years.

In 710, Sargon II lead a successful attack on the south and was welcomed into Babylon. He allowed Merodach-Baladan to remain as sheikh of his tribe. In 703, Merodach-Baladan made another bid for power and this may be the time he visited Hezekiah (2 Kg 20:12, Is 39) seeking Hezekiah’s help. Isaiah’s opposition to such a pact was soon vindicated, Sennacherib’s attack defeated the Babylonians. Babylon was again plundered and left with governors to rule it.

This was followed by various fights for power with different people, which resulted in a further attack and sacking of the city, during the reign of Manasseh in Judah. Esarhaddon followed Sennacherib and having governed the city and liking it, he rebuilt it. He made one of his sons king of Assyria and one king of Babylonia. This worked well for twelve years, until Assyria marched on Babylon and after three years, the king of Babylon burned the palace down around him and Assyria installed a governor.

During the last year of Ashurbanipal, 626 BC, the governor died and Nabopolassar, a Chaldean tribal leader, rallied the tribes and rebelled against the Assyrians. He cleared Babylon of the Assyrians for the last time. Six weeks later he was asked to be king. At this time the Assyrians were torn by internal strife and rebellion among their vassals and could not put down this rebellion. In 614, he allied with Cyaxeres, the King of the Medes, who joined with the Babylonian armies, led by his son, Nebuchadnezzar, to attack Assur and then Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, which fell in 612 BC. The remnant of the Assyrian army was driven west to Carchemish, a city situated on a ford on the Euphrates.

The Battle of Carchemish

Pharaoh Necho of Egypt, thinking that it was better to support the failing Assyrians against the Babylonians, who were seen as a greater threat, took his army up to Carchemish to fight against Nabopolassar. There was a significant battle at Carchemish in 605 BC, when Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Egyptians (2 Kg 23:29), and destroyed the remnant of Assyria, giving the Babylonians control of the west, including Judah. It was when Pharaoh Necho was going up for this battle that King Josiah was defeated and killed in 609 BC, Judah then came under Egyptian dominance.

About this time, Nabopolassar died and his son Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to claim the throne 605 BC. He then returned west, and after a siege Jehoiakim was made his vassal in 604 BC (2 Kg 24:1). Daniel and a small group of bright young men were taken to Babylon at this time. After 3 years Jehoiakim rebelled by forming an alliance with Necho of Egypt, and the Babylonians attacked again. By this time Jehoiakim had been succeeded by Jehoiachin, who was defeated after only 3 months reign (2 Kg 24:8). He surrendered and was deported with a number of people (including Ezekiel) and much spoil in 598 BC (2 Kg 24:10), and Nebuchadnezzar put Zedekiah on the throne.

The craftsmen were deported to help with Nebuchadnezzar’s great building program in Babylon (2 Kg 24:14), leaving only the poorest people in the land. Zedekiah rebelled and in 586 BC, what was left of Jerusalem was taken. The city and temple were destroyed, Zedekiah was taken blinded to Babylon and Gedaliah left as governor (2 Kg 25). Some final captives were taken from Jerusalem in 581 BC.

Nebuchadnezzar was a very strong king, the only strong king of the Babylonians, those who followed him were not of his calibre. His destruction of cities was so fierce, the fires in Lachish were found to have been so hot that the limestone buildings were turned into lime.

After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the empire was steadily weakened. Amel-Marduk (Evil-Meroach of 2 Kg 25:27) ruled 2 years and was replaced by Neriglessar (Nergal-Sharezur in Jer 39:3). He was ousted and Labashi-Marduk took his place, a weak king, who lasted only a few months.

After a coup d’etat in 556 BC, Nabonidus took the throne. In 553 BC, he led the army to Palestine and N. Arabia leaving Belshazzar as co-regent in charge of the city of Babylon. Some say he left for health reasons, being better suited to the region of Arabia, others suggest he was so unpopular that he just left the city. As Belshazzar was only the second in the kingdom, he offered Daniel the reward of third rank in the kingdom for interpreting the writing on the wall (Dan 5:7,16).

Because of Nabonidus’s expensive military expenditure and extensive building programs begun by Nebuchadnezzar, inflation rose to fifty percent. This led to widespread famine and brought about much discontent. When Cyrus entered the city, there was much rejoicing.

The Persian conquest of Babylon

Babylon was conquered on Oct 13, 539 BC by Cyrus and the Persians. Cyrus realized after laying siege that it was impossible to scale the huge walls. But Cyrus had noticed that the Euphrates was running literally through the walled city, under the walls, with heavy gates in the river bed. Two deserters came out from the city and Cyrus sent them back into the city to find out how to take Babylon from the inside. The Babylonians were carousing at a feast (Belshazzar’s Feast, Dan 5). They were drinking from the vessels which were to be used in the house of the Lord. Cyrus diverted the river Euphrates away from Babylon, so the armies could enter the city under the walls by the dried up river bed. The city was taken without a fight and Belshazzar was killed. The Persians were looked upon as conquering saviours and heros by the population.

Predictions of the fall of Babylon

Isaiah lived during the time when the Assyrians were the reigning world power (200 years earlier), but he also prophesied about the time of the Babylonians. Isaiah predicted the fall of the Babylonian empire before it even existed and detailed how the fall would happen.

The main passages are: Is 13:1-14:23, 21:1-10, 43:10, 46:1-10, 47:1-15. 14:12-20 is often interpreted as describing the fall of Satan, but is in the context of the fall of Babylon.

God said that he was stirring up the Medes (Persians) against the Babylonians (13:17). Cyrus said in his diary that Marduk had called him by name. Cyrus thought it is Marduk that is stirring him up, feeling that such a power had taken hold of him. But God says it was really him that did it. “I call Cyrus by name” (Isaiah 45:4). In 46:1, Isaiah predicted that Bel bows, Nebo stoops, the gods of the Babylonians.

Isaiah predicted that the rivers would be dried up (44:27) and that the gates of bronze and iron would be open to Cyrus (45:1) (prophesied by name), describing the way Cyrus and his armies would enter the city.

The ruins of Babylon

Babylon was completely lost for centuries but has now been found by archaeologists who confirm the accounts of Herodotus. An archaeologist said, “Even the Euphrates has abandoned Babylon. The very trace of life has gone out from Babylon. Under my feet are the dens of jackals and foxes. Nothing breaks this deadly silence, a jackal is now sending forth his cry. A certain fascination holds me here, why should a flourishing city like this be utterly devastated? Why should a flourishing city the seat of an empire completely disappear? Was it the result of some curse or prophecy?”

Babylonian Kings

1. Nabopolassar         626 – 605
2. Nebuchadnezzar     605 – 562
3. Evil-Merodach       562 – 560
4. Neriglessar             560 – 556
5. Labashi-Marduk    556
6. Nabonidus             556 – 534
7. Belshazzar              553 – 539 (as regent)

Fall of Babylon           539

Family relationship of kings

1. Nabopolasser (626-605)
   |
   2. Nebuchadnezzar (605-562)
   |
   _________________________________________________
   |                             |                                                          |
2. Evil-Merodach          daughter m. 4. Neriglissar        daughter Nitocris m. 6. Nabonidus
   (562-560)                          (Jer 39:3) (560-556)                                           (556-539)

(2 Kg 25:27, Jer 52:31)                 |                                                          |

|                                                          |
5. Labashi-Marduk                            7. Belshazzar (553-539)
(556 – 2 mts)

Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah – 701 BC
(2 Kg 18-19, 2 Chr 32 and Is 36-37).
Julian Spriggs, M.A.

After the death of Tiglath-pileser III in 727, rebellions broke out in the Assyrian empire. During the period of Hezekiah’s reign, Judah made several attempts to rebel against Assyrian domination, including religious reforms – returning to the worship of Yahweh, purging the land of idolatry, and withholding tribute. Hezekiah looked for allies, including Merodach-Baladan of Babylon (Is 39) and Egypt.

Hoshea, the last king of Samaria, was a vassal of Assyria. He rebelled by forming an alliance with Egypt, which was no help to him. Shalmaneser V of Assyria invaded and besieged Samaria for three years, which fell in 722 BC, as predicted by Amos and Hosea fifty years earlier. During the siege of Samaria, Shalmaneser died and was succeeded by Sargon II. For his first seven or eight years, Sargon had troubles from Merodach-baladan of Babylon and in Urartu in the north, so he left Judah in peace.

Ethiopia (southern Egypt) gained strength and gained control over the whole of Egypt. Egypt emerged as the champion of the nations subjugated by Assyria, “Egypt their boast, Ethiopia their hope” (Is 20:5). Hezekiah reversed the policy of his father, Ahaz, and became pro-Egypt, rather than pro-Assyrian.

Isaiah warned against trusting in Egypt (Is 18:1 & ch 29-31), as they were not really strong and could not offer real help (31:1-3). Isaiah removed his sackcloth and shoes as a sign that Egypt and Ethiopia would become captives of Assyria (Is 20).

Ashdod (Philistia) lost her battle against Assyria, being defeated in 715 to 713. This was predicted in Is 14:28-31. Their leader fled to Egypt for asylum, but was handed back to Assyria. Judah did not participate in this battle.

Babylon rebelled against Assyrian rule in 705 BC, and tried to get Judah to join them in their effort to throw off the Assyrian yoke. Merodach-baladan of Babylon visited Hezekiah to congratulate him on his recent recovery from sickness, but his real motive was to strengthen the alliance with Hezekiah against their joint oppressor, Assyria (Is 38:6, Is 39). Hezekiah coordinated the resistance movement, forming a coalition with Philistia, Edom and Moab, using Egypt’s strength (Is 30:1-7, 31:1-3). Everyone, except Isaiah, rejoiced over the alliance with Egypt. Hezekiah had turned to Egypt, just as Ahaz had trusted in Assyria (Is 30).

Possibly this was the time when Isaiah told Hezekiah to get his house in order because he was about to die (Is 36:1). He had fifteen years added to his life, making a total reign of twenty-nine years. God made a promise to Hezekiah that he would deliver him and the city of Jerusalem out of the hand of the King of Assyria (Is 38:6-7).

In 703 BC, Sennacherib dealt with Merodach-baladan, the rebellious king of Babylon. He then defeated the combined forces of Egypt and Ekron, as Egypt had come to help Ekron. Instead of marching into Egypt, Sennacherib attacked Judah to bring his rebellious vassal Hezekiah back under Assyrian control, taking forty-six walled cities, including Lachish and 200,000 people captive (2 Kg 18:13). During the siege of Lachish (2 Kg 18:14-16), Sennacherib received a message that Hezekiah had repented for his rebellion and that he had asked for peace at any cost (2 Kg 18:14). Sennacherib sent messages to Hezekiah, who paid tribute, three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold, even stripping the gold from the door of the temple, but this was not enough.

Jerusalem was besieged by Sennacherib’s Rabshakeh (the second in command of the army), who mocked the God of Hezekiah (2 Kg 18:35, 19:10, Is 36:4). Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem, and said that “he had trapped Hezekiah in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage”, and demanded his surrender. In response, Isaiah told Hezekiah to trust God. Through Isaiah, God promised deliverance. Hezekiah trusted God by refusing to give in to the Assyrian armies and God delivered Judah from the hand of Assyria. After over fiftyyears of ministry, someone finally believed Isaiah’s word to trust God. God proved faithful to Hezekiah and gave miraculous deliverance.

There was a rumour, predicted by Isaiah, that Tirhakah of Ethiopia was coming against Assyria (2 Kg 19:9, Is 37:7), the Assyrians temporarily withdrew from Jerusalem. When they returned, God’s angel killed 185,000 of their troops (2 Kg 19:35). Herodotus wrote that the Assyrian army was killed by a plague of mice (possibly bubonic plague carried by rats). God supernaturally destroyed the Assyrian army, which led to the decline of Assyria as a world power (2 Kg 18-19). Sennacherib did not attempt to conquer Jerusalem again, Judah was left in peace. Sennacherib was murdered by his sons, in 681 BC (37:38) and his son Esarhaddon succeeded him.

From the Annals of Sennacherib on the Taylor Prism in the British Museum:
“As to Hezekiah the Jew, he did not submit to my yoke, I laid siege to forty-six of his strong cities, walled forts and to the countless small villages in their vicinity, and conquered them by means of well stamped earth ramps, and battering rams brought thus near the attack by foot soldiers. I drove out 200,150 people, young and old, male and female horses, camels, mules, donkeys, big and small cattle beyond counting and considered them booty. I had Hezekiah trapped in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage. I took tribute from Hezekiah, thirty talents of gold & three hundred talents of silver.”

The Book of Isaiah shows a great contrast between Ahaz and Hezekiah. Ahaz refused to trust God, preferring to trust Assyria with the consequence of losing his nation’s freedom; but Hezekiah, against all odds, trusted God and was delivered.

This great deliverance is predicted a number of times in the prophets: Isaiah predicted that the flood of Assyrian invasion of Judah will reach even to the neck (Is 8:7-8), implying that all Judah will be conquered except for Jerusalem. He also predicted the route of the invading Assyrian army, that they will halt at Nob and shake his fist at Jerusalem (10:28-32). He predicted the siege of Jerusalem and sudden destruction of enemy (29:1-8). Micah also named some of the forty-six cities taken by Assyria (Micah 1).